CHAPTER 2

State of the Practice

ACRP Synthesis 54: Electric Vehicle Charging Stations at Airport Parking Facilities (Richard 2014) provided the first overview of EV charging at airport parking facilities, including the key challenges and opportunities that airports found through their experience with installation and management. In that synthesis, airports reported few to no issues with installation but were concerned with their needs in the future and how to accurately assess the number of charging ports required as well as appropriate locations. Airports also noted the wide range of costs associated with charging equipment, a concern that remains over a decade later. Key topics included technology, business and policy issues, and planning requirements. This chapter will provide an update on those topics, through a review of the literature, and discuss data collection and use policies, utility coordination and management, and safety. In addition, investment costs and funding opportunities will be explored, including an overview of innovative or emerging solutions being explored in the United States and internationally.

The EV Landscape

The electrified mobility space is changing rapidly; in 2011, fully EV sales were 0.2% of the total car sales in the United States; in 2023, that rose to 7.6% and is expected to reach 10% by the end of 2024 (Muller 2024). Increasingly, consumers are selecting plug-in hybrids, with sales rising from less than 0.5% in 2014 to just over 2% in 2023 (Dwyer n.d.). The effect of these sales is that more and more of U.S. vehicle owners will have an EV and will expect to find charging when traveling, including at the airport. Alongside the increase in sales, federal funding to support charging infrastructure is in the middle of its rollout, which could lessen range anxiety (i.e., concern by a person driving an electric car that the battery will run out of power before the destination or a suitable charging point is reached). Allocated funding to support EVs and EV infrastructure at the federal level alone totals approximately $30.7 billion between fiscal year (FY) 2022 and FY2026 (Jellings 2021). Funding is available to support the use of clean vehicles, EV infrastructure, and grid-side investments.

The influx in funding, as well as the importance of the environment under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA), could help drive EV sales in the short term. In the long term, many manufacturers are increasing their EV production to meet corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) standards and emission reduction targets. Twelve states have adopted Advanced Clean Cars II standards (i.e., a regulation from California that stipulates all vehicle sales must be zero-emission for model year [MY] 2035 vehicles) (Khatib 2023). Some states have modified the regulation by adopting the sales percentages up to MY 2032. U.S. travelers have also indicated a strong interest in more sustainable travel, which could start with their ground transportation options (Virta 2023). Ultimately, access to charging will play a vital role in enabling the passenger fleet to switch to electric.

The availability of, and access to, charging is moving from an amenity to a requirement in some areas as state and local governments adopt regulations or ordinances related to charging-capable, -ready, and -installed spaces. For example, the City of South Portland in Maine passed an ordinance in 2022 that requires 5% EV-installed and 20% EV-capable spaces in new or reconstructed parking facilities for non-residential, non-employee parking (City of South Portland 1992). Cities in California are adopting similar ordinances and the state has established a streamlined permitting process, which is legislatively mandated for many cities (California Governor’s Office of Business and Economic Development n.d.). Requirements for charging in public parking facilities tend to focus on Level 2 charging, but California also has requirements for transportation network companies (TNCs) and airport shuttles to electrify, which may require fast chargers at the airport and in passenger parking facilities. Although these chargers may be installed by a third party or private entity, the airport will need to consider the additional load in their energy management for the airport.

Trends and regulations related to vehicle electrification require airports to quickly assess their current EV charging capacity and demand as well as their potential needs within parking facilities, especially long-term parking. Customers leaving their vehicles for multiple days or over a week may have a greater desire to charge their vehicles at a parking facility. Availability of charging is especially important to airport users who must travel greater distances to access the airport. In addition, short-term parking facilities could support fast-charging capabilities for passenger pickup and dropoff.

Existing Electric Vehicle Infrastructure at Airports

ACRP Synthesis 54: Electric Vehicle Charging Stations at Airport Parking Facilities found that at least 37 airports in the United States were providing EV charging in some capacity (Richard 2014). Through the survey and a review of parking information available on airport websites, 93 hub airports now have at least one EV charger available for use by the public. The charging type or level typically depends on the type of parking facility as well as the size of the airport. Larger airports are more likely to have Level 3 or Direct Current Fast Charger (DCFC) chargers, given increased passenger throughput and the resulting demand for EV charging.

Charging Equipment Levels

Charging equipment differs in terms of power and therefore time to charge. The differences are typically described in terms of “levels” and this section provides an overview of the three levels of charging and their key differences (see Table 1).

Level 1.

The exact amount of charging capacity depends on components such as the size of the battery, the maximum power supplied to the grid, the charger, and the EV. Level 1 chargers take the longest to deliver a full charge but have universal capabilities. Level 1 chargers would be most beneficial for passengers who have long extended trips and use long-term parking that suits charging at a slower pace. A Level 1 charger uses a standard 120V outlet and a J1772 connector (which are used mainly in residential buildings) and provides 2 to 5 miles of range per hour of charging. This type of charging does not require any special equipment. To reach a full charge from empty takes approximately 5 to 6 hours for a PHEV and 40 to 50 hours for a BEV (USDOT n.d.a.).

Level 2.

Level 2 chargers provide charging at a greater rate than Level 1—about 10 to 20 miles of range per hour of charge, depending on vehicle capability. Level 2 also requires a 208V to a 240V outlet. Level 2 chargers are commonly used in commercial settings but can support residential charging. Charging from empty to complete takes approximately 1 to 2 hours for a PHEV and 4 to 10 hours for a BEV (USDOT n.d.a.).

Table 1. Overview of charging equipment.

	Level 1	Level 2	DC Fast Charging
Connector Type	J1772 Connector	J1772 Connector	CCS Connector CHAdeMO NACS Connector
Voltage	120 V AC	208–240 V AC	400 V – 1000 V DC
Typical Power Output	1kW	7kW - 19kW	50-350 kW
Estimated PHEV Charging Time from Empty	5-6 hours	1-2 hours	N/A
Estimated BEV Charge Time from Empty	40-50 hours	4-10 hours	20 minutes 1 hour
Estimated Electric Range per Hour of Charging	2-5 miles	10-20 miles	180-240 miles
Typical Locations	Home	Home, Workplace, and Public	Public

Source: U.S. Department of Transportation

Level 3.

Level 3 charging or DCFC (i.e., the fastest form of EV charging) is most beneficial in short-term settings, such as along corridors. Level 3 charging is not universal to all electric vehicles, which adds a hurdle to its implementation. PHEVs currently do not work with fast-charging and can only use Levels 1 or 2. Level 3 charging requires 400V to 1000V DC plugs. Level 3 can provide such speed because it converts AC to DC in the charger instead of inside the car. This process allows Level 3 chargers to provide about 180 to 240 miles of range per hour, allowing an 80% charge from empty to take 20 minutes to an hour for a BEV. Three connectors can be used in DC fast-charging: Combined Charging System (CCS) connectors, CHAdeMO connectors, and the North American Charging Standard (NACS) connector are all available in this mode of charging (USDOT n.d.a.). CCS connectors use a combination of connectors to provide power up to 350kW; due to demand, there has also been implementation and testing of 400kW and 700kW CCS connectors. CHAdeMO, mainly used by Japanese-manufactured EVs, is a fast-charging connector. NACS connectors are also fast-charging-capable connectors recently adopted by most American vehicle manufacturers.

Parking Use Cases for Different EV Chargers

Airport parking facilities present a challenge in terms of EV charging because the typical length of stay by airport users does not align with the current market for charging equipment. Level 2 chargers are widely available for commercial use because of their applicability for hospitality and retail use cases. However, airport customers tend to park in facilities for either a very short time (e.g., for pickup and dropoff) or for extended periods of time (e.g., days to weeks). For example, although only 30% of vehicles entering and exiting the airport stay for more than

24 hours, vehicles parking for more than 24 hours occupy 70% of the parking spaces (Jacobs Consultancy et al. 2010). This example highlights the lack of daily or hourly parking that typically occurs in passenger parking facilities. The applications and use cases for Levels 1, 2, and 3 chargers at an airport are discussed in the following subsections.

Level 1 and 2 Charging.

Although Level 1 and Level 2 chargers are common across most residential and commercial EV charging equipment today, Level 3 is typically reserved for high-traffic corridors where drivers require a fast turnaround. In terms of airport use cases, Levels 1 and 2 chargers would meet most airport passenger needs. Level 2 chargers are the most popular charging equipment in airports because Level 2 chargers better meet the needs of travelers (Carlton and Sultana 2022). Although a Level 2 charger can restore a vehicle to 80% charge within hours, users of airport parking facilities are often parked for days, rather than a few hours.

Although the needs of airport customers can be addressed with either Level 1 or Level 2 charging equipment, factors to consider when deciding on the appropriate mix of chargers include current demand, investment cost and budget, and the parking facility type and location (Virta 2023, Foster 2023). Airports with less throughput and more long-term parking may benefit from the reduced costs associated with Level 1 chargers. However, Level 1 chargers do not typically provide networking capabilities, thus limiting data collection opportunities. Existing charging infrastructure at airports is typically Level 2 equipment, but this may be driven by charging providers and other commercial use cases rather than airport needs (Richard 2014, Foster 2023).

Level 3/DCFC Use Cases.

Level 3, or DCFC, chargers address a smaller proportion of passenger parking use cases at the airport but may serve short-term lots (e.g., cell phone waiting lots) or be needed to address ride-hail or taxi vehicles. Depending on the layout of the airport, ride-hail vehicles and taxis may use pickup and dropoff zones within existing passenger parking facilities. In such cases, airports would need to consider the charging needs of ride-hail vehicles and taxis along with charging equipment for airport customer use.

Although Level 3 chargers can be a significant investment, recent research has highlighted the needs and opportunities at airports that may be best served with “fast-charging depots.” Fast-charging depots, also referred to as fast-charging hubs, are locations with Level 3 chargers that can support ride-hail vehicles and taxis, as well as airport pickup and dropoff. A hub or depot would have greater access to charging than a typical parking facility (e.g., more than 10 Level 3 chargers in one location). The continuous traffic turnover at large hubs, and even medium and small hubs, could support fast-charging stations near passenger pickup and dropoff areas (Foster 2023). Depending on location, these charging depots could also offer easily accessible public charging to non-airport customers. Many airports have developed cell phone lots to reduce dwell time near the terminal—these are places where Level 3 chargers could be installed and used to generate revenue. The Rocky Mountain Institute conducted a case study at Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) to understand the different business models as well as the time to recover the investment made by the airport (Carreon, Klock-McCook, and Mohanty 2022). The case study explored various business models to support charging, but each model saw LAX recover their investment within 10 years. The main use cases focused on ride-hail vehicles and taxis, but these pickup and dropoff zones can be within existing parking facilities at airports.

Although fast-charging depots could be used to generate revenue, challenges include

• The effect on overall electricity demand and capacity at the airports;
• The lack of data on the true cost of installation as well as operations and maintenance costs; and
• The need for utility upgrades and coordination (Carreon, Klock-McCook, and Mohanty 2022).

These challenges are not unique to Level 3 or fast-charging but are exacerbated by the increased electrical capacity needs as well as the utility demand charges that can occur from spikes in electricity

usage at the airport. Airports have multiple facilities drawing from the grid, but this demand is often relatively flat across the day (Amarnath 2024). Introducing fast chargers would change the load profile and could increase costs if demand charges are incurred. The effect and importance of demand charges from a utility are discussed under Utility Coordination and Load Management.

Challenges Associated with Charging at Airport Parking Facilities

Understanding the appropriate mix of EV charging based on parking facility need and airport use cases is a key challenge, and which is often related to charging asset location and understanding demand for charging. Using networked chargers allows the owner to collect data and answer questions related to use and demand, but using networked chargers requires an investment in the equipment and in staff time to monitor the equipment. Factors that affect charging purchase decisions, as well as the overall cost of ownership, include utility coordination and load management, capital equipment costs, installation and maintenance costs, and safety procedures.

Charging Asset Location and Demand Management

Location of EV charging varies by airport with each airport having its own strategy. Airports generally balance customer preference with available infrastructure and safety considerations. From the customer perspective, it is important to keep in mind factors like visibility, accessibility, and use (Bonges and Lusk 2016). From the airport perspective, available electrical infrastructure (e.g., capacity at electrical panels) access and egress for safety purposes, and customer needs will play a role.

Given the unique use cases at airports, charging etiquette is also an important consideration. Locating charging equipment near facilities or in desirable spaces may increase the likelihood of a non-EV parking in the space. Selecting a location that provides good access to electrical infrastructure and is close but not directly in front of the terminal can ensure that the spaces are only used for charging. Signage and wayfinding for EV spaces also play roles in both promoting the amenity and proper charging etiquette (USDOE n.d.a., Caltrans n.d.). Public parking facilities must follow local codes and ordinances to ensure signs are enforceable. In addition, the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) guidelines should be followed, unless the parking facility is deemed private (USDOE n.d.a.).

Charger locations affect demand management as well. As EV sales increase, demand for charging at the airport may follow. Parking layouts that allow multiple vehicles to access the charging equipment can reduce issues with improper parking in an EV charging space and better use of the asset for longer stays in the facility. Policies and procedures around unplugging vehicles when their charge is complete would need to be considered if a charging owner is to maximize the use of the asset (Bonges and Lusk 2016). For example, this could be a service provided by staffed parking facilities. Many vehicles will not allow the charger to be decoupled when the vehicle is locked—this would limit the ability to unplug a vehicle outside of valet parking arrangements.

Ultimately, the airport may need to find a middle ground between customer preferences and ideal placement with respect to hard infrastructure. This tradeoff exists for most commercial parking facilities intending to install charging stations. Choosing a non-premium location can help ease demand—those who do not need to charge may choose to park elsewhere.

Data Collection and Utilization Policies

A key component of demand management is understanding use patterns and electrical consumption at existing chargers or potential use based on survey responses or customer feedback.

Collecting data to determine use practices typically requires a networked charging solution. Such data can then be incorporated into a dashboard for airport use; software solutions may be limited by or depend on charger brand as well. Advantages of networked chargers include

• The ability to assess a fee,
• Knowledge of the performance and maintenance needs of the asset,
• Understanding who is using the charger and for how long,
• Establishment of polices related to administration and access control, and
• The ability to determine energy limits or understand energy uses (Jones 2018, Young 2021, USDOT n.d.b.).

Selecting a charger that is part of a network can also be useful for marketing and informational purposes, given that the charger will appear on the charging network’s map.

Non-networked chargers can reduce initial investment costs and lead to reduced maintenance costs. Depending on the solution chosen, the owner will typically need to purchase a software package to maintain access to the data. As airports with older charging assets consider upgrades to meet existing standards and airports plan for additional capacity; the decision will depend on whether the benefits of the data, in that format, outweigh the additional costs.

Ultimately, data collection can allow airports to establish performance metrics and targets, which may support accreditation programs or environmental assessments. In addition, a detailed understanding of usage and demand can be used to support grant applications or build partnerships with charging providers. In turn, understanding demand will help with electrical capacity planning and load management if more of the transportation sector electrifies, thus increasing the demand at airports.

Utility Coordination and Load Management

A key theme when discussing EV charging installations and power requirements is to coordinate with the utility “early and often” (USDOT n.d.c., USDOT n.d.d.). Depending on the needs of the site, EV charging equipment might easily be installed within existing capacity; however, if large-scale installations or fast chargers are involved, this may not be the case. Communicating these needs with the utility as soon as they are known can reduce lead times on parts as well as heavy infrastructure upgrades, which tend to be costlier and could take years to complete. Therefore, ideally utility engagement and coordination begin as early as possible and the utility is kept informed of any plans or developments (USDOT n.d.d.). Forecasting load increases or growth in required capacity to support transportation electrification is essential to ensuring that the utility infrastructure is in place to address such growth.

Understanding future needs relies on an understanding of existing electrical capacity and use, even before EV charging equipment is installed. Electrical capacity assessments provide an overview of the maximum load a site can support across all facilities as well as an understanding of where electrical panel capacity exists. These assessments typically involve utility coordination to understand the potential for upgrades as well as existing maximum capacity to a site (Virta 2023, Richard 2014, van Bergen et al. 2021). Gathering data from charging assets provides the airport with an understanding of the impact to their overall electricity usage as well as providing information on potential future capacity needs for planning purposes.

Electrical capacity assessments can provide critical information on load management and where or when that may be required with relation to EV charging. The use of networked chargers allows an owner to establish a policy around energy usage to limit the effect of EV charging to overall power consumption and reduce load when necessary (Jones 2018). However, metering and submetering can be used to limit power usage by charging assets rather than investing in

networked chargers. This is significant when considering the cost effects of demand charges from a utility company (Tucker and Snyder 2021). Some utilities offer rebates for shedding load during peak periods (i.e., a peak-time rebate) (Nandy, Botts, and Wenning 2022). The ability to limit power to non-essential functions, such as EV charging for airport customers, can support load-shedding. Most energy management models in the literature rely on revenue considerations or assume revenue generation for optimization (Firouzjah 2022; Babic et al. 2022; Faria, Baptista, and Farias 2014). Given that many airports do not assess a fee for EV charging, models may need to adopt other optimization protocols to better fit the airport’s needs.

Because the adoption of charging infrastructure could cause a significant rise in the consumption of energy, research has explored the potential for a microgrid system to manage the various electrical demands of an airport, including EV charging (Guo et al. 2023). Airport parking lots have time-based rate structures and allow customers to book longer-term parking in advance. Long-term parking lots tend to have passengers that book their flights in advance with return tickets. This can allow the facility to have a database of demand predictions based on this information. Using vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, the parking lots could be used as aggregated energy storage units which would improve the stability of the grid system in the future (Guo et al. 2023; Tan, Kang, and Zhong 2023). V2G is not fully developed for large-scale use and may not be practical depending on utility policies or regulations. Copenhagen Airport is working with several partners to test the potential for V2G and smart charging to reduce emissions and electricity usage at the airport. By installing additional charging infrastructure, the airport can tap into the vehicles as an additional power source when needed (Thingvad 2023). Although this technology could help with load management in the future, it would incur additional investment costs.

Investment Costs

The cost of installing, managing, and maintaining charging equipment varies greatly and depends on the charger level, whether the equipment is networked, and the need for electrical or utility upgrades. Cost elements can include

• Charging equipment,
• Transformers,
• Other utility upgrades (if necessary),
• Data contracts,
• Network contracts, and
• Payment systems (Nelder and Rogers 2020).

Those cost elements do not include the “soft costs” associated with installing charging equipment including costs for process/ing, marketing, and permitting.

Although the literature states that the cost of hardware elements is declining and assumed to continue declining, the costs associated with installation remain highly variable (Smith and Castellano 2015; Gamage, Tal, and Jenn 2023). For example, installing a Level 2 charger can cost anywhere from less than $1,000 to more than $10,000. The actual equipment costs can range from $1,000 to $5,000. In terms of Level 3, installation costs can range from $5,000 to $50,000; equipment costs can range from $10,000 to $40,000 (Nelder and Rogers 2020, Smith and Castellano 2015). In addition, the cost of managing the charging (e.g., monitoring usage and data collection and assisting customers) and the cost of maintaining the asset is not well documented. Estimates ranged from $250 a month to $400 a year (Frode, Lee, and Sahdev 2023; USDOE n.d.b.). However, as noted for hardware, costs are highly variable and can depend on usage of the equipment. It is also important to consider the fee that would need to be assessed to recover these costs if the intention is to cover costs through fees to the user. As with installation costs, maintenance costs depend on the type of charger and whether it is networked.

When planning for EV charging equipment, it is important to consider the total cost of both installation and operations and maintenance. Although economies of scale can be realized, initial charging installations may require significant staff involvement. These internal soft costs can continuously decrease as future chargers are installed (Richard 2014). Involving all relevant personnel (from parking managers to electrical engineers) in regular discussions can ease this process and help to reduce time and cost.

Ultimately, the cost of charging equipment and lack of standardization in the charging industry can restrict growth (Foster 2023). The current availability of incentives and grant funding may play a critical role in enabling EV charging to be installed in parking facilities (van Bergen et al. 2021; Frode, Lee, and Sahdev 2023). As the industry grows, standards may be developed that reduce cost fluctuations and allow for better planning and budgeting regarding EV charging infrastructure.

Safety

Standards and regulations relating to the safety of EV charging equipment are in varying stages of development, but key principles still apply. Guidance typically emphasizes the quality and rating of equipment, monitoring and maintenance, and specific guidelines when EVs may be parking or charging near internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles or within a parking garage or covered facility (Durante 2023, Binder 2023). This section will provide an overview of guidance related to EV charging equipment as well as some key standards and codes that parking facility owners and managers should reference.

Basic safety provisions include using equipment rated for the intended use (e.g., under cover/indoor or outdoor) and ensuring that the manufacturer and parts are certified before installation (FEMA and U.S. Fire Administration n.d., NFPA 2023, Majano n.d.). Also, the asset needs to be monitored for excessive wear and tear that could cause safety issues. Finally, EV battery fires are different from ICE vehicle fires. When a lithium-ion battery fails, it goes through a process called “thermal runaway,” where a single battery cell failure can cause the production of not just heat and oxygen but flammable and toxic gases. In turn, the fire can spread rapidly, burn longer, and even lead to explosions (O’Connor 2022). Although these events are relatively rare, unique safety considerations are required when EVs are parking within garages or near other vehicles.

The 2022 NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, increased the recommended hazard classification for parking structures (O’Connor 2022). In 2023, NFPA 88A required all parking garages to have sprinkler systems installed in accordance with NFPA 13 (O’Connor 2022). As of early 2024, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) had few requirements for parking garages equipped with EV charging. The National Electrical Code (NEC), the standard for all electrical hazards, should be referenced before any installations take place.

Local codes and ordinances may have different standards and should always be referenced in conjunction with the requirements from NFPA and NEC. For example, the San Francisco Fire Department (SFFD) updated their guidance on sprinkler protection requirements of parking spaces associated with EV charging stations. The update was in response to 2022 NFPA 13, which SFFD did not believe adequately addressed the risks associated with EV fires (SFFD n.d.). SFFD is requiring (1) a fire sprinkler system designed per Extra Hazard Group II (EH2) for new buildings and (2) that existing buildings augment their sprinkler systems to meet EH2 standards. The requirement does not include an extension of 15 feet beyond the permitted parking spaces, as currently required by 2022 NFPA 13 Section 19.1.2(1) for the EH2 classification (SFFD n.d.).

EV charging equipment owners can also access free or paid training for their employees through the NFPA. The NFPA has 12 EV training resources covering guidance for emergency

responders, installers, code officials, utilities, and vehicle technicians, and specific training on NFPA and NEC requirements (NFPA n.d.). All these training resources are offered online.

Overall, safety guidance is evolving for EV charging equipment as existing assets are analyzed and assessed. Regular maintenance and inspection are critical to safety because damaged or defective equipment can pose a hazard to technicians and the public. Employees who will be interacting regularly with the equipment should receive the appropriate training and education. Electricians must stay current on the codes, regulations, and guidance. Table 2 provides an overview of key codes and standards but is by no means an exhaustive list. Finally, integrating systems for fire protection into parking facilities can assist with responding to an EV fire (Binder 2023). These systems can include remote power boxes to cut off power at the charger when a fire is detected, fire detection systems close to the EV charging stations, and security cameras to confirm a fire incident.

Table 2. Key codes and standards table.

Sources: Durante 2023, Binder 2023

Cybersecurity

Cybersecurity is a critical issue for EV charging, especially as networks expand across the United States (USDOE 2024a). The federal government is supporting research to test vulnerabilities and provide guidance on a risk-based approach to managing cybersecurity challenges that occur with EV charging infrastructure (USDOE 2024b; Grayson et al. 2023). However, limited research, standards, or best practices for EV charging equipment exist.

The research currently being funded by the federal government includes

• An EV Secure Architecture Laboratory Demonstration
• Improving secure communications through proper implementation of public key infrastructure (PKI)
• An assessment and coordination of EV supply equipment cybersecurity standards (USDOE 2024b).

Despite the lack of existing standards, guidance is available on conducting a threat assessment as well as risks to consider with EV charging infrastructure (Johnson et al. 2022). In addition, the research underway should support the development of standards and improve the consistency of their implementation. Ensuring safe and secure charging requires a full understanding of the risks, so selection, installation, and maintenance of chargers with internet connectivity should be coordinated with the IT department to address cybersecurity-related concerns.

Opportunities to Support Charging at Airport Parking Facilities

Although airports need to consider several factors and challenges related to EV charging, opportunities exist to support charging at airport parking facilities. Recent federal legislation has expanded the availability of funding to support EV charging, and existing funding programs under the FAA can be used to support EVs and charging stations. This section will (1) provide an overview of the available federal programs and highlight other incentives, such as utility incentive programs; (2) discuss considerations for revenue recovery or assessing a fee; and (3) highlight some innovative solutions for EV charging at airports.

Available Funding and Incentives

The FAA has developed several programs to support environmental initiatives using Airport Improvement Program (AIP) funds. The federal Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL), which included several funding programs to support EV charging, can be used by airports. Grant funding may also be available at the state and local level; for certain grant funding programs, it is important to coordinate with state and local partners to use these funds effectively. Table 3 provides an overview of some of the funding programs available to airports.

Discretionary grant programs will require grant applications, and each program has its own requirements and selection criteria, so time and resources will be needed from the airport. Match requirements differ but are generally 20% for most federal funding programs. These grant programs are very competitive and generally receive many more applications than there is funding available. Programs such as VALE allow the airport to use funding to finance asset purchases.

Small-hub airports typically receive a greater share of AIP funds because small-hub airports represent 55% of all hub airports in the United States (NYSERDA n.d.). Allocation of funds through AIP depends on factors such as how much funding is authorized for the program, the number of enplanements, and the passenger facility charge assessed by the airport (FAA 2023b).

Table 3. Federal funding for EV charging equipment.

Note: These programs were available when this research was conducted (May 2024) but may no longer have funds available.

A U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) report in 2020 indicated that AIP funds did not cover the total needs at airports. In terms of EV charging equipment or planning, most airports have dedicated their AIP funds to other needs and explore alternative options to support these projects (GAO 2020). Seattle-Tacoma International Airport used AIP funding to conduct research on new approaches and test design strategies related to EV charging (Carreon, Klock-McCook, and Mohanty 2022; LeighFisher and Synergy Consultants 2018). Using AIP funds to conduct research can help airports make key decisions that will enable airports to install, manage, and maintain charging assets within their budgetary constraints.

State and local governments also have grant funding opportunities to support EV infrastructure investments; however, these opportunities are also competitive and have limited funds. Although it is not possible to detail all the grant opportunities at the state and local level in this synthesis, examples include

• California’s Charging Infrastructure for Government Fleets through the Clean Transportation Program. Up to $30 million is available to support EV charging infrastructure for light-duty government fleets (California Energy Commission n.d.).
• Colorado’s “Charge Ahead Colorado” provides funding for Level 2 and 3 charging stations. The program provides a maximum funding of 80% of the total cost up to certain thresholds that depend on the type of charging (Colorado Energy Office n.d.).
• Denver International Airport used this program to help install ten new EV charging stations (DIA 2015).
• New York’s Charge Ready NY offers rebates to install Level 2 EV charging stations at workplaces, multi-unit dwellings (MUDs) or public facilities owned and operated by municipal or state government entities. Up to $4,000 per charging station is available for public installations and up to $2,000 per charging station for workplace and MUDs (NYSERDA n.d.).
• The City of South Portland, Maine, has a Level 2 Electric Vehicle Charging Grant to support the installation of Level 2 chargers (City of South Portland n.d.). Priority is given to specific locations, including workplaces and businesses with heavy traffic.

Outside of grant funding, private investment and utility funding opportunities can be used to install and maintain charging equipment. Charging providers are installing stations across the country to meet demand, and if demand exists at an airport, there may be an opportunity to direct the investment (Joint Office of Energy and Transportation 2023). In addition, utility companies are offering various incentives, from grants to rebates, to support charging infrastructure (Allen et al. 2017, EV Charging Summit 2022). Utility incentives can scale with the type of charger, reducing the high initial costs of these investments.

Although not directly related to funding, certain accreditation programs award points based on the provision of EV charging equipment or for make-ready upgrades. For example, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification guidelines offers one point when a new facility installs EV charging in 5% of the facility or at least two spaces (whichever is greater). In addition, one point is offered when 10% or at least six spaces, (whichever is greater) are made EV-ready (U.S. Green Building Council n.d.). The Airport Carbon Accreditation program includes alternative fuel vehicles and charging stations within the strategies that can be used to reach Levels 2 and 3 of the program (Airport Carbon Accreditation n.d.). Airports with sustainability goals may be able to justify investments based on progress toward accreditation standards.

Charging for “Charging” and Other Revenue Considerations

Before determining an effective rate for charging, EV charging owners need to determine whether assessing a fee is worthwhile. Although generating revenue from the charging asset can help to recover costs, the amount of charging installed, the costs associated with establishing a rate and collecting payment, and the potential total cost of ownership are important considerations.

In general, there are two primary business models for EV charging site hosts: owner-operator and third-party-owned and -operated. With the owner-operator business model, the site host is responsible for the installation, operation, and maintenance and can assess a fee. (In a third-party business model, the site host typically does not play a role in installation, operation, and maintenance but may assess a fee for use of land or space within a facility.) Typical pricing structures include no fee, a nominal fee to cover costs, and as a profit center (Atlas Public Policy 2020). Revenue generated from the use of the charging equipment can be used to help to recover costs associated with either the initial investment, maintenance costs, or both.

The ability to assess a fee is typically easier with networked chargers, but networked chargers increase the cost to the owner in terms of the equipment and managing a payment system. Another option would be a valet or a gated area for EVs to determine usage and charge either a set or time-based fee to those using the chargers. A “charging as a service” model reduces the burden on the facility owner, but also reduces the potential for revenue recovery (Frode, Lee, and Sahdev 2023). Ultimately, if maintenance costs are low, the cost of determining a rate and collecting payment may outweigh the revenue generated.

Factors to consider when determining an appropriate rate include

• Data requirements to determine the rate based on price structure,
• Payment collection and management,
• Type of fee (e.g., fixed, time-based, or per-kWh), and
• How use of the asset will be monitored.

Airport parking facility goals are typically to generate revenue, enhance the customer experience, and improve efficiency (Mandle and Alandou 2022). Providing EV charging helps to improve the customer experience, but as this demand grows, the importance of generating revenue to keep up with costs may increase.

Understanding the total cost of ownership is beneficial when establishing a pricing structure. However, depending on the age of existing assets, not all EV charging equipment owners have the data required to conduct a total cost analysis. As experience with charging equipment grows, more data and information may be available to support pricing and revenue recovery decisions.

Innovative Solutions

Various airports have created innovative solutions to address the challenges of increasing charging availability. These innovative solutions include smart parking upgrades (at LAX), mobile charging through ZiGGY (at DFW), and the development of a charging hub (at London’s Gatwick Airport). These examples are discussed below.

Smart Parking.

Smart parking refers to technology that improves efficiency or access to parking facilities. LAX Economy parking was awarded the “innovative facility of the year” award in 2022 because of LAX’s success in modernizing and digitizing the parking experience. Updates, such as a mobile booking system, have provided customers with an efficient experience while providing the airport with new revenue opportunities (PowerFlex 2021). LAX’s automated parking infrastructure includes (1) automatic gates with automated license plate readers (Pannunzio 2020) and (2) robots that go around the parking lot scanning license plates and ensuring that people are parked in the correct spots for their vehicle and parking type (ABM n.d.). LAX’s smart parking initiative includes increasing access to EV charging through 500 Level 2 EV chargers across their parking as of 2021. Guests reserve their EV spots and then pay their EV fees through a one-step payment for parking and a fee based on kilowattage used (PowerFlex 2021).

Mobile Charging.

DFW has partnered with EV Safe Charge to evaluate EV Safe Charge’s mobile electric charging station, ZiGGY, in a public space. ZiGGY is a charging robot that “meets” drivers at their spaces rather than requiring EV owners to park next to physical charging infrastructure. DFW’s VP of Innovation states that the airport is aware of the role EVs will play in the future. DFW is embracing this technology in hopes of meeting the demands of the future. The goal of ZiGGY is to speed up the entrances and exits of travelers using charging stations and allow charging to be offered anywhere in a facility. ZiGGY is deployed directly to the parking lot in which the vehicle is located and is then plugged in by the user. This technology provides Level 2 charging speeds, but there are plans to increase it to Level 3 soon. ZiGGY also benefits

the facility in that it provides space on the charger for electronic advertising, which could provide an additional revenue stream (Paul 2023).

Charging Hubs.

London Gatwick Airport is the first international airport to open an Electric Forecourt—essentially, an EV charging hub similar to a gas station. The Forecourt has 30 high-power and low-power EV chargers that are available for a fee. The fastest on-site charger can add up to 100 miles of range in 10 minutes. Other amenities are offered (e.g., a lounge area, Wi-Fi, a coffee shop, and a convenience store). The charging hub is in a strategic location frequented by millions of passengers, commuters, staff, businesses, and residents every year (International Airport Review 2024). Charging hubs can help address equity issues related to charging. Access to home charging can be limited, especially in dense urban environments (Carlton and Sultana 2022). London Gatwick’s ambition is to achieve a rate of 60% zero or ultra-low-emission trips to and from the airport by 2030 (International Airport Review 2024). To ensure the growth of the EV user base, it is crucial to increase non-residential destination charging. Services such as the ZiGGY mobile charging station or the Electric Forecourt at London Gatwick provide users with a more accessible and convenient experience (Carlton and Sultana 2022).