Intermodal Passenger Facility Planning and Decision-Making for Seamless Travel (2024)
Chapter: 2 History of Intermodal Passenger Facilities Through 2020
CHAPTER 2
History of Intermodal Passenger Facilities Through 2020
Introduction
This chapter provides a brief history of the evolution of intermodal passenger facilities, beginning with the first train stations and urban rail systems, describing how intercity travel evolved following the expansion of the Interstate highway system and the growth of commercial aviation. It considers how external events, national policy, and changes in technology, consumer behavior, and business have influenced intermodal passenger facilities, setting the stage for a closer examination of recent trends and implications in the next chapter.
The history and evolution fall into five eras of differing durations (see Figure 1).
- Pre-1970: Rise and decline of intercity travel by train and bus.
- 1970–1989: A changing business climate for rail, bus, and air travel.
- 1990–2009: Technology transforms business and consumer behavior.
- 2010–2019: New mobility era.
- 2020 and beyond: Remote/hybrid work, climate adaptation, and automation (see Chapter 3).
Pre-1970: Rise and Decline of Intercity Travel by Train and Bus
The U.S. transportation system underwent dramatic changes between the 1900s and 1960s, transforming the movement of both people and goods. Most of the country’s iconic train stations were constructed in this period (1900s–1930s), and many that survived are historic stations with new development. Private investors constructed urban rail transit services (streetcars, underground subways, and elevated lines) during this period. Numerous new transit stations included transfer points to other transit services, and some included station or area amenities that spurred higher-density development, a precursor to today’s transit-oriented development (TOD) districts. In the 1950s, the federal government began building the Interstate highway system, and passenger airport construction/expansion took place throughout the United States.
The intercity bus system, which began as hundreds of independent companies in the early 1900s, consolidated into a few major companies, including Greyhound, which by the beginning of World War II, had 4,750 stations and employed about 10,000 people (Cook 2019). By the late 1950s, highway expansion and increasingly affordable air travel contributed to a decline in intercity bus and rail travel.
The federal government established several separately funded modal organizations to regulate modes of travel, including the agencies now known as FHWA, FAA, and FTA. Separated funding for each agency limited intermodal planning (Horowitz and Thompson 1994). By the 1960s, most U.S. cities were characterized by an auto-oriented built environment, the passenger railroad industry was in decline, and transit experienced major ridership declines.
1970–1989: A Changing Business Climate for Rail, Bus, and Air Travel
The Rail Passenger Service Act of 1970 created the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, later known as Amtrak, to assume control of intercity rail following bankruptcies of private passenger railroad companies. Following a period of decline, including neglect and abandonment of some historic train stations, the 1980s saw the rehabilitation of legacy rail stations and the restoration/expansion of commuter rail services.
In 1975, Amtrak initiated a program to encourage intermodal travel by providing travelers with information on bus interchange routes. Auto dependence continued to grow, with vehicle ownership rates steadily rising between 1970 and 1990 (Rodrigue 2024). The intercity bus industry continued to see ridership declines, and Greyhound Lines experienced major driver strikes in 1983 and 1990. Further bus industry consolidations, bankruptcy filings, and ownership changes took place. In transit, new or expanded rapid transit networks developed in many U.S. cities, some with stations featuring TOD, including agency-led joint development projects.
In aviation, a spate of airline hijackings led to increased passenger screening requirements. This helped lead to the premature closure of the former TWA terminal at Kansas City’s Mid-Continent International Airport (MCI). When the terminal opened in 1972, its design was driven by TWA’s requirement for a “drive to your gate” concept, with flight gates only 75 feet from the roadway. The cost of installing security checkpoints at each gate area rather than at a centralized area was prohibitive. As a result, passenger services (restrooms, retail, etc.) were nonexistent downstream of the security checkpoint in the gate area (Airports Worldwide, n.d.).
The 1978 Airline Deregulation Act was transformative in helping to open up air travel to many more people. Established airlines rushed to gain or preserve access to the most lucrative routes. New airlines quickly formed. Fierce competition resulted, which drove fares down. Passengers flocked to airports in record numbers (National Air and Space Museum 2021).
1990–2009: Technology Transforms Business and Consumer Behavior
The passage of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA) paved the way for a new era of intermodal passenger transportation planning. Previously, federal transportation policy and funding generally focused on individual modes rather than intermodal transportation (U.S. Government Accountability Office 2007). ISTEA allowed the use of federal highway program funds for other highway or transit projects, among other changes.
By the early 1990s, Amtrak-operated trains began carrying more commuter passengers than intercity passengers, and transit ridership was slowly starting to increase following a period of decline (Bureau of Transportation Statistics 2013). This era also witnessed significant growth in air travel in the United States (Statista Research Department 2024). This led to efforts to improve intermodal connections to airports, and the first Amtrak station with direct access to an airport opened in Milwaukee in 2005. The earliest bikesharing and carsharing systems were launched in the late 1990s (Shaheen et al. 2020b), and carsharing firm Zipcar was established in 2000.
In the early 2000s, several bus companies began offering curbside service between New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Washington, DC, at far lower fares than bus-terminal–based operators, affecting Greyhound’s market share in the northeast.
Major technological change also defined this period, including the growth of the Internet. Amtrak launched its website in 1995, and although online booking would not be available for a few years, the website provided schedule information (Amtrak, n.d.). Home broadband use
Transformative Events
Events that helped to transform the management and operation of intermodal passenger facilities included the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and major storms such as Hurricane Katrina (2005). The Department of Homeland Security and the Transportation Security Administration were both created in the wake of 9/11. New airport security measures limited gate access to employees and ticketed passengers, requiring customers to arrive earlier. With customers spending more time in terminals, airport operators added space for restaurants, bars, lounges, and shopping.
In 2005, Hurricane Katrina made landfall in New Orleans, becoming one of the worst natural disasters in the history of the United States and highlighting the vulnerability of critical infrastructure to massive weather events (U.S. Government Accountability Office 2006).
expanded rapidly, from about 1% to 62% in just 10 years (Pew Research Center 2024). This changed how travelers could access information, albeit on each provider’s website.
The first Internet-enabled phones were available in the early 2000s, but the release of the first iPhone in 2007 and other touchscreen-enabled devices soon thereafter transformed how millions of travelers could communicate and access information. Application (app) developers introduced smartphone apps, including many for travel purposes.
2010–2019: New Mobility Era
Broad access to smartphone apps led to the development of app-enabled on-demand mobility options, which have continued to transform behavior.
Transportation Network Companies
A transportation network company (TNC) is a for-hire vehicle (FHV) ridehailing service with one paid driver and at least one paying passenger. In 2012, TNCs such as Uber and Lyft started offering on-demand (not pre-arranged) ridehailing in the United States. By 2014, the demand for TNC services had grown enough that Nashville International Airport was the first airport to have an agreement with TNC providers (Leiner and Adler 2020). By 2016, TNCs were permitted to operate at 60 airports, and by 2019, Lyft had agreements with 368 airports in North America (Leiner and Adler 2020). As TNCs proliferated, many airports and cities experienced increased congestion and competition for curb space, with some establishing dedicated zones for where these activities could take place. City transportation departments responded by establishing operating rules and pickup zones. Intermodal passenger facility planners and owners and their agency partners learned lessons from the rapid growth of ridehailing, including the value of flexibility and adaptability; these lessons apply to future intermodal passenger facility planning.
Bikesharing and Scooter Sharing Programs
Bikesharing provides users with on-demand access to bicycles at a variety of pickup and drop-off locations for one-way (point-to-point) or roundtrip travel. E-scooters, short for electric scooters, are light, battery-powered vehicles ridden while standing up. E-scooter sharing arrived
in Santa Monica in 2017 and expanded across the United States quickly thereafter (Fonseca 2019). In 2010, bikesharing and e-scooter sharing saw 321,000 total trips, growing to 136 million trips by 2019, with 86 million (63%) trips via scooter (NACTO 2020). Station-based bikesharing trips were limited to a few cities, such as San Francisco, Boston, Chicago, Honolulu, New York City, and Washington, DC.
This era also saw a number of U.S. cities investing in improved bicycling and walking infrastructure and implementing Vision Zero plans to eliminate traffic-related fatalities and severe injuries. These investments and initiatives have enabled more people to access intermodal passenger facilities by walking and bicycling.
Availability of Real-Time Transit Data
In the transit industry, dissemination of real-time data became far more widespread through the use of automatic vehicle location (AVL) equipment (APTA 2021). This enabled agencies to provide real-time vehicle arrival displays in stations and at stops and to disseminate information to app developers. The plethora of smartphone apps with real-time data pushed directly to travelers permitted personal trip planning without consulting information screens or asking for assistance.
Growth and Potential of Battery Electric Buses for Transit
In 2018, when TCRP Synthesis 130: Battery Electric Buses—State of the Practice was published, there were at least 13 battery electric bus (BEB) models available and more than 70 U.S. transit agencies with BEB deployments, with 600 BEBs on order or in service. The report describes the growth and potential of the BEB market and challenges many transit agencies face while deploying BEB technology (Hanlin et al. 2018).
Electric Vehicle Sales Growth
Sales of battery electric vehicles (EVs) in the United States have grown rapidly, from approximately 10,000 in 2011 to more than 240,000 in 2019 (U.S. Department of Energy, n.d.; Argonne National Laboratory, n.d.). As of 2020, nearly 1.8 million EVs were registered in the United States, three times as many as were registered in 2016 (Desilver 2021).
Focus on Improving the Airport Passenger Experience
ACRP Research Report 157: Improving the Airport Customer Experience describes notable and emerging practices in airport customer service management to increase customer satisfaction (Boudreau et al. 2016). Terminal renovation projects began at several airports, including a major renovation of New York’s LaGuardia Airport Terminals A and B. As airport terminals expanded, navigating terminals required longer walks within them, increasing the need for airlines to assist passengers who were unable or not confident in their ability to travel to and from airline gates. ACRP Research Report 177: Enhancing Airports for Aging Travelers and Persons with Disabilities provides information on pedestrian wayfinding for older adults and people with disabilities to help them independently navigate airports [Harding et al. 2017; also see the Airport Terminal Planning Advisory Circular published in 2018 (Federal Aviation Administration 2018)].
Automated Vehicle Investments and Testing
Automated vehicles (AVs) are vehicles that automate certain driving systems that do not require human input. SAE International has defined six levels of autonomy for vehicles, from
Level 0, with no automation, to Level 5, where the steering wheel becomes optional for the vehicle (InterVISTAS Consulting, Inc., forthcoming). The new mobility era saw growth in automation, with features and elements being integrated into personal vehicles. Private companies began testing automated vehicles on closed tracks and subsequently on city streets. In 2017, some automakers were predicting that fully automated vehicles would be available by 2020 (Madrigal 2017).
Important Changes Outside of Passenger Transportation
Other important trends that accelerated during the 2010s and continue to have implications for intermodal passenger facilities include the growth of e-commerce, rapid increases in housing costs and expanded housing shortages, and increased frequency of extreme weather events. According to a United Nations (UN) report, from 2000 to 2019, there were 7,348 major natural disasters. By comparison, 1980 through 1999 had 4,212 natural disasters (UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction 2020).
